Create Your Career Marketing Tools

Create Your Career Marketing Tools
What are the traditional career marketing tools?
Career marketing tools refer to those strategies and concepts that will be used to promote your career in a positive light to create better opportunities for your brand.
The traditional career marketing tools refer to those career marketing tools that have not been influenced by the recent wave of digital marketing tools. The traditional career marketing tools have existed long before the use of the digital marketing tools, the use of these traditional marketing tools in many cases require a physical interaction with the target audience through your traditional marketing materials.
The traditional career marketing tools include:

1. Personal brand statement.
2. Brand profile
3. Core branding story.
4. Media advertisements.
5. The use of flyers and handouts.

These traditional career marketing tools have a remarkable level of positive effects on the subject matter being advertised, it is however necessary to brand the materials you have chosen to be used during your traditional marketing campaigns. The branding of these materials will ensure that the target audience knows the reason for the campaign, your brand being the subject matter and they will be able to reach out and locate the brand when they have been fully convinced from what they see from the branded materials.
Branding your resume, cover letters and core branding story is necessary to convey your brand with the information you need to be passed on to your target audience. The inclusion of your personal brand in your official documents like a resume, cover letter or your core branding story will give a better insight and information about your personality and your value to the employer. It takes a little over 1 minute for the employer to go through your resume or cover letter, so it has to be instantly captivating from the initial first reads.

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When including your personal brand in your cover letters or resumes, you should take care not to sound too official and unfriendly as this will instantly put off the employer studying your papers. The employers go through thousands of resumes and they can instantly spot a unique one when they come across it, this will be your chance to get a leverage by using your personal brand to create your resume or cover letters in a manner that it will be unique, original and very different from the thousands of generic sounding presentations from your competition.
While drafting your cover letters, resume or core branding stories, you should create a structure that will easily lead the reader through your written package, this structure will show the reader your genuine interest in getting a chance to offer your services, with an assurance that you have been adequately trained with a remarkable experience when it comes to delivering that service. You should also direct the reader’s attention to your previous accomplishments and how easy it is for you to achieve these positive feats easily now that you have gathered the vital experience to do this over the years. Identify and explain your special skills and the training that you have received to get those skills. Then it will be an added advantage if you can clearly describe how you will be useful to your employer, this should be done in the most accurate and professional manner while you only make the claims for the services you know you can truly deliver effortlessly when the enabling work environment is provided for you to execute your responsibilities. When these steps are followed in the right manner your employers will clearly know why they should employ you and what they will benefit from employing your services.
There are very many marketing materials available through which the necessary information on how to present your brand and your career can be obtained. These materials can be found free online and bought from the website portals of higher institutions that offer these courses. The knowledge provided by this career marketing materials are important but they have also been generalized to cover a vast area of careers. You can go beyond what has been offered to you through these materials by engaging in other educational exercises that will push your imaginations to the highest levels of innovation. Learning to be innovative will always produce very good results especially when this is backed by the knowledge you have already acquired that is relevant to marketing your career. You should think outside the box, this means you should think outside the boundaries and limits that might have been constructed by the career marketing materials, push your spirit of innovation towards achieving more things than those that have been prescribed in the materials you have access to. By thinking outside the box, you will gradually get used to resolving challenges in different and better ways than have been previously applicable. You can also add value to your abilities by diversifying and getting more knowledge from a wider source of information, this can be from books and other materials that are of interest to you from which you will be able to get the necessary inspiration to become even more innovative.

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The internet as a marketing tool

The internet over the year has been able to gather the biggest audience ever known to man, the internet has become widely popular all over the world, and the internet is constantly being used by millions of people at the same time in different parts of the world. This is one of the reasons why it is a very important tool that can be effectively used to build and promote your brand.
With the internet, you will be able to easily get the attention of millions of people in a very short time when you apply the right methods of internet marketing. Many entrepreneurs have utilized the internet platform as a means through which they express themselves to their target audience, this way they can directly reach out and present the direct value of their brands to the target audience while explaining how the brands will add value to their lives. The worldwide reach of the internet has made it one of the most valuable means of marketing in these current times.

Advantages of using the internet as a marketing tool

There are many advantages of using the internet as a marketing tool, there are so many testimonials that will confirm the importance of the internet as a marketing tool, these success stories have inspired even more people to innovate better ways to harness the advantages of using the internet for marketing at higher levels in a bid to get even better results. The notable advantages of using the internet as a marketing tool are:

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1. It is very cheap - using the internet as a marketing tool is very cheap when compared to the costs that will be required to conduct marketing exercises through the TV stations or the radio. The internet as a marketing medium is very cheap and highly effective while giving you the versatility of creating your own marketing campaign as you see it fit. With the internet millions of people can be reached at very minimal financial costs.
2. Speed – using the internet as a marketing tool provides a medium through which millions of people can be reached in a matter of seconds, just with the click of a mouse key, your message is broadcast all over the entire world for your target audience to see.
3. Far reaching ability - the internet has a wide reach that covers the entire world, there is very little limits to the parts of the world you can reach through the internet, this has been supported by the millions of people that have also adopted the internet as their means of getting information, they will get your information when you use the internet to execute your marketing needs.
4. Customized search - with the internet, you can perform customized search activities to locate and identify any particular group of your target audience that you specially need to reach out to. This versatility offered by the internet has promoted its use by many marketing teams from all over the world.

Marketing your brand will be further promoted when you create a website for your brand; your brands website will be unique and exclusively designed to promote your brand and to provide the necessary information that your target audience will need during their search. You will also be able to include your direct contact information on your website; there are many members of your target audience who will seek to have a form of physical interaction with the owners of the brand before they patronize the brand. Advertising on other popular internet websites is also a good marketing practice through which your target audience will be directed to your website or social media pages for more information that they will need.
Your guide to action
In this chapter we have discussed the rudiments of using the various types of career marketing tools that are available to you in your bid to understand the basic concepts of branding and how to get your brand out in the market so that it can be easily seen by your target audience and the buying decisions made promptly.
The following questions have been included in this guide to action segment as a means through which you can carry out a self-assessment of your understanding of every part of this chapter which you have just finished.
What are your career marketing tools?
Marketing your brand is one of the core activities you and our brand team will be constantly engaged in doing. You need your brand to become as publicized as possible, every brand owner has one big dream, the dream of building their brands to become very conspicuous and a house hold brand name. You can achieve this for your brand as well once you have followed the right principles without cutting any corners. These methods have been tested and are known to have had good results, they have been used for over many years and the results and mistakes have been modified, this is good news because this fact has created the reason why you should never make the common mistakes that have been made in the past concerning branding and marketing works.
Your career marketing tools will basically be made up of the testimonials and reports of your qualifications and your achievements as you have had in your business or official working life. You career marketing tools will create the opportunities for you to climb up higher on the corporate ladder in every field of operation you find yourself, you will use these tools as the indication of your qualification through which you can express your abilities to deliver the services that are expected from the positions you desire to occupy. Developing your career marketing tools might take a long while, but as with everything that is worthwhile, it is advised that you should always take your time to make sure you get the best qualifications and practical training that you will need to sell yourself in the very competitive corporate market.
Can you identify your readily available career marketing tools?
It is very important that you should know the career marketing tools you have readily available at your disposal for use any time the needs arise. You should always have them handy while you are making more plans to add to these qualifications in a bid to improve your chances in the open corporate markets and also in the private sector of the economy. Every member of your brand community and your entire target audience should be impressed when they come across your career marketing tools; this is why these tools must be in the best position.
Take action now, start the process of identifying your career marketing tools, and get the comprehensive compilation of every career marketing tool you can lay your hands on. Now when you have done this please have a good look at your collection, study it and then ask yourself, are you impressed with the career marketing tools that are available to you? Are you cover letter the way you have always dreamt it should be? What can you do to improve your resume? What does your brand statement reflect about you?

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When you have these answers if you are okay with them then start launching your personal brand out there, but if you are not satisfied with the career marketing tools you have at your disposal, there should be no alarm, it is never too late to correct what it should be. You have to take immediate action to add to your career marketing tools no matter how long it takes, never give up because if you give it your best you will always succeed.
Why is it important to brand your career marketing tools?
There have been some reservations expressed by many gurus in the branding industry on how to brand your career marketing tools. Many options are available to you when you have made the choice to brand your career marketing tools. It is a very good way of putting your personal brand out there, these career marketing tools go very far and they are constantly moving through different offices, so there are better chances of your brand going even further.

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What you need to do is to identify the branding methods you will use for your career marketing tools and then stick to them. Your cover letter can be branded in a very attractive way that will compel the beholder to study it even more; the right use of professionalism in your branding project will be the most important determining factor that will indicate how successful branding your career marketing tools will be.
You should identify the career marketing tools you want to brand and then choose the branding methods then go ahead while ensuring the message you need to be passed along is effectively communicated to the target audience.
Do you understand the benefits of branding your career marketing tools?
The only way you will brand your career marketing tools in the right way is if you absolutely understand how you can conduct this exercise in the most effective way. This will be done when you understand what you stand to gain when you when you successfully brand your career marketing tools in the most professional manner.
What I need you to do are to convince yourself about the benefits of branding your career marketing tools to you with this conviction, when you are executing the branding exercise for your career marketing tools, you will do it very well.
Do you need to stamp your resume?
You should always be stamping your resume in my opinion; you should always look for those organizations where you can become a great intern with good learning opportunities. As you go through the educational phase of your career always open up your mind to getting new information and learning new skills that you will use to overcome the numerous forms of challenges that will always arise in your branding career. When looking for the opportunity to gather the right experience in your branding career, seek out the organizations that operate in the most practical manner. Those are the organizations that will give you practical responsibilities that you will be required to execute personally.
How can you achieve your goals with branding your career marketing tools?
The best way you can achieve your goals after branding your career marketing tools is to create a system through which your career marketing tools that have been well branded will be able to circulate throughout the areas that your target audience will be able to see them and know the good and selling attributes of your personal brand. When this is done in the right way, all your expectations from the branding of your career marketing tools will be achieved with very commendable results.
Have you understood how you can use the internet to build your brand?
Understanding how the internet can be used to build your brand will expose your brand to an almost unlimited avenue for expansion growth and success in every respect. I am confidently attesting to this because I know the number of internet users that has been estimated from the many studies carried out about internet usage on a global scale. Getting the internet to work for your brand will be so good for your brand, you can easily reach out to millions of people with your brand statements and you have an almost inexhaustible opportunity to always pitch your brand profile to your target audience using the various mediums that the internet provides for the internet users.
Great testimonies have been reported of the breakthroughs in business for brands that only just started out with very little but they were able to use the internet in the right way to positively project their brands and the end result was a successful branding campaign that has been sustained for many years to come.

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How can you promote your brand with through the social media?
The first step you have to make while attempting to promote your brand through the social media will be to have a very good understanding of how the social media operates and how it can be used to project your brand effectively to your target audience. Once you have established your social media presence for your brand, you need to start sending out the broadcast messages that will be received by your target audience on the social media platforms.
Basically what you need to do is to conduct a study of the available social media platforms and you will have to identify those platforms that will be best suited for your brand, when you have made your choices because they might be more than one, you will then have to create your social media account for your brand through which you will be reaching out to your brand community and the target audience. The information you will be passing on to your target audience through your social media accounts must be very well managed, they should be contents that are easy to read and understand and they should be a source through which the target audience will be able to benefit from, the social media platforms are filled with many spammers and the various spam bots available on many platforms will immediately block those accounts that have been found out to spam useless content to millions of people, you need to ensure you share good and useful information every time and this will keep your brand community actively interested in your brand on a daily basis. You can always use the effects of a good SEO strategy to improve your online presence on the various social media platforms and on the internet, you can learn how to write a SEO papers or you can outsource it to freelancers who have become professional SEO writers, they will create great materials that will be very visible on the internet through the various social media platforms as well.
Organizing your social media strategy for brand building is very interesting and it has a lot of rewards, you have to just do it in the right way, if you make mistakes you might end up sending across the wrong information to your target audience and the processes you will need to take to correct the misconceptions will be time consuming as well as financially draining leading to a waste of your much needed funds for other projects. You should avoid wasting the time of your brand community members by sending them on useless searches that will yield very little results to their benefit. The victims of this mistake will find it very difficult to forgive you and this will not be good for your brand, this is why it is important to ensure that every information you send through your social media account should be important to your brand community.

Human Resources Best Assignment Help

HR Assignment help is offered to students by the functional and assiduous team of ww.cheapassignmenthelp.co.uk. We also provide Human resources Project help and HR case study help without any delay.

The term Human Resources is designated to an individual or a group working in a company or an Organization to accomplish the given task in order to meet the goals of the organization. Similarly, Human resources management is the process of managing people or employees and creating a positive work environment for every working individual. Also the role of Human Resource Management involve planning, developing and administrating plans and policies by making judicious use of organizational human resource. Hence, our Human Resource tutors have mentioned three important objectives that need to be accomplished by Human Resource department.

1. Promoting development of every individual.
2. Maintaining good working relationship between every member of the organization.
3. Using Human resource of the Organization excellently.

If you are looking for Human Resources Assignment help, www.cheapassignmenthelp.co.uk is surely the appropriate place for you. We have some of the best Human Resources tutors of Australia. Besides checking their commendable degrees in the course, we have conducted test to make sure that your assignments are handled in the responsible hands. Our Experts also writes HR case studies for our clients. They have successfully written many projects on topics of Human Resources. So, you can fully rely on the accuracy of content designed by them. Along with good knowledge in the subject, they also have excellent command over the language; hence our Human Resources assignment help provides you accurate and grammatical correct contents. Our tutors have listed few responsibilities that students pursuing this course must know very well. Once you are acquainted with these responsibilities of HR Manager, studying the subject will be interesting as well as purposeful. The details of these duties is covered in our HR assignment help. The brief overview of the responsibilities of HR Manager are listed below:

1. Active involvement in formulation of company plans and policies.
2. To communicate effectively with individual or groups within or outside the organization.
3. Act effectively as a proficient leader and also facilitate members of organization in every possible way.
4. Have a good knowledge of corporate culture.
5. Analysis of problem (if any) and taking measures to get an effective solution.
6. Work in order to help company achieve the goals.

Our online HR experts have excellently outlined the above points to keep students informed on the tasks performed by HR Manager of a company. If you are looking for reliable HR assignment help, you can choose our team to do it for you. You can visit our online assignment help site to see Human Resources assignment sample that is impressively written by our HR tutors.
Human Resource is an umbrella term that encloses different functions of HR department. Hence, students can specialize in any of this area to set a foundation for their professional career.
1. Recruiting and Employment: Recruitment is a basic yet a main function in Human Resource Management. Checking the vacant post, estimating the required manpower, publishing advertisements for the vacant position, conducting interviews, recruiting new candidates, providing them employment opportunity, organizing orientation for new employees and training them are all looked by the Recruitment and Employment team of HR department in a company. Hence, the success of Recruitment team is measured by the vacant position they fill and the time required to accomplish this job.
2. Keeping the record: Record keeping is an important function of HR department. The activities of Record keeping include maintaining records of employees (date of recruitment, promotion, medical records, transfers and many more), retrieving the required record whenever necessary and updating record from time to time. In a sentence, this function in HRM requires written proof of employees, their activity and their performance.
3. Planning: Planning is required to meet the organizational goals and objectives. Hence, HR department in a company requires proper planning on company objectives, recruitments, employees, rules and exits. Also planning to protect HR of the company, availing reports on employment and working with clients are planning conducted in this area of HRM. If you are failing to plan for your HR assignment seek the help of our online site. Our HR assignment help lets you get the raw information on any topic of Human resources.
4. Employer relations: This function in HRM underlines a good relationship between an Employer and an Employee. A well-coordinated relationship helps to meet the organizational goal smoothly without any constraints. It is duty of HR employer to understand the working requirement of the employees and maintain a balance between the rule of organization and employee’s working needs. If this criteria is met, only than a company can progress effectively.
5. Health and safety: A function of HR department also ensures safety of every employees. For this reason; training, safety guidelines, plans in case of emergency and availability of safety equipment are managed by Health and safety team of HR department. Helping to maintain good health and safeguarding employees is an important process in HRM.
6. Benefits and Compensation: HR is an important asset of any organization but at the same time it is also a reason of major expenses. Availing benefits to employees following organization rules is a major challenge to this area of HRM. Plans on Reward, wages, appreciations, compensations to the employees must be formulated by a particular team of HR department.
If you are requiring assignment on any mentioned areas of HR, you can visit our online portal and choose HRM assignment help delivered to you by competent tutors linked to us. Order Now

Understanding of the Client

Risk of Material Misstatement at Financial Statement Level

Section A: Understanding of the Client

• Salix Pharmaceuticals is a specialty pharmaceutical company. It is engaged in purchasing, developing and trading in medicines and equipment's helpful for gastrointestinal disorders.
• The company's head office is located in North Conecticut, State of Delaware.
• Salix is listed on NASDAQ stock exchange.
• Company is considering merger with Valeant Pharmaceuticals International such that Salix would become a subsidiary of Valeant in the recent future.
• On 28^th of January, 2015 the company identified that its earlier quarter statements would be restated considering certain errors and shall not be relied upon.
• Company's subsidiary Santarus along with its licensor has commenced a case in US district court against Par Pharmaceuticals Ltd. for infringement of its six patents.
• Company had made an announcement that its leadership would change in the end of January and the company would have an acting chief executive officer till a new CEO is selected.
• Company has Xifaxantablets as their base pharmaceutical products and in case any day the consumption of these tablets is unaccepted by the customers, the company may be majorly negatively affected.
• Company has taken large amount of borrowings, which have potentially booked its future income for payment of interest and repayment of the debt.
• The company has already sold a large amount of its products to the wholesalers. This may mean that its sales in future would be narrowed by the stock already available with those wholesalers.
• To stay in the industry, company has to continuously keep innovating. While innovations on a continuous basis may not be possible, company also needs to work upon financing them, since already it is holding large amount of debts with covenants which may impede its ability to take further debt.
• Company has made a loss of US dollar 414911 thousands in 2014 which in itself questions the ability of the entity to continue in future.

Section B: Risk Assessment

Risk of Material Misstatement at Financial Statement Level

1. Control Environment –Company has recently received a change in management and it has been accompanied by a decision of the entity to become subsidiary of Valent Pharmaceuticals Ltd. This raises substantial questions on the difference between management and ownership in the company. While the company is facing these situations, its subsidiary has initiated a claim for infringement of patents, which requires an assessment as to whether the company is considering earning through this prospect, because its other prospects may have been closed.
2. Fraud – Presently there are no described fraud cases in the entity. But it has been highlighted that the company has sold excess stock to the wholesalers which can impede their ability to take in more stock. And, considering that the company is making losses even when additional stock has been supplied to wholesalers shows chances of fraud.
3. Going Concern – The companyhas taken large amount of borrowings with covenant which restrict it from taking further loans. In the present industry where it is not having funds to carry out the necessary innovations, it seems that this covenant would result in hindering the ability of company to continue as a going concern. Further this borrowing comes with interest payment requirement when the company is incurring losses, this too can be assessed as a factor which questions going concern assumption.

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Risk of Material Misstatement at Assertion Level

1. Completeness assertion on Sales – It is related as to whether all sales that have increased the level of stock with the wholesalers have been accounted for.
2. Occurrence of research and development expenditure – The company is out of funds, and the income statement shows an expenditure of US $170,289 thousands. It needs to be considered as to whether it has even occurred.
3. Rights on Assets – Salix is facing critical condition, this may have encouraged the management to show bogus assets or those assets which are not theirs.
4. Allocation of absorption of intangible assets – Company has shown high amount of intangible assets absorption, it needs to be assessed whether allocation on yearly basis is right.
5. Classification of Borrowings – No significant asset has been added to the financial, but a huge borrowing has been added. It puts a question as to whether the borrowing has been rightly classified as long term borrowing.
6. Valuation of retained earnings – A negative figure of retained earning has been presented in the financial; a valuation basis needs to be assessed.

Risk Conclusion

At the financial statement level the control environment is not effective, depicting that the control risk is high for the business. Further, if the fraud and going concern be considered at the financial statement level, they are also high. In relation to the assertion level, each of the six assertions considered are depicting certain type of risks. The completeness assertion is depicting high risk due to inclusion of excessive sales to the figure. As for the occurrence assertion, research and development expenditure shown in the profit and loss depicts fraud risk. Right on assets assertion evaluation also highlights the possibility on depicting assets as owned when the business does not actually have a right on the assets. On the allocation assertion, excessive absorption of intangible assets has been provided, which again indicates a risk. Finally for classification assertion and valuation assertion too risk has been highlighted due to the expectation of wrong classification and negative retained earnings figure. Thus since the risk at financial statement level and the risk at assertion level both are high, the inherent risk associated with the financials of Salix Pharmaceuticals Ltd is high. Now, the final risk that needs to be assessed is detection risk. Since it has been considered that a major population would be selected and among the population 50% would be necessarily considered, it is expected that the detection risk would be low. However, considering the different fraud risk factors which show that there may be an involvement of management in fraud, which makes it difficult for the auditor to detect the misstatement, again increases the risk factor. Thus as per the AR model

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Audit Risk        = Inherent Risk x Control Risk x Detection Risk
= High x High x High
= High
Therefore the total audit risk for the audit is high. The assessment concludes that the overall company is located in high risk. This means that there are high probabilities that the auditor may not be able to detect the material misstatements in the financial statements.

Section C: Materiality Decisions

Since the company is making losses, materiality level cannot be set at Net Profit Income; therefore on the basis of average income of past three years that is $ 94152, materiality has been set at $42,368. The computation is as follows:
Materiality Calculation
Testing Level of the audit = Standard
Therefore assurance level of the materiality = 2.0
Materiality Base = Average Income for three years = $94,152
Materiality = 50% of Materiality Base               = 50% x $ 94,152                    = $ 47,076
Less: Most Likely Error = 10% of Materiality    = 10% x $47,076                     = $   4,708
Precision is 90%                                                                                                           = $ 42,368
Population Considered = Population above Materiality with Precision at 90%
= This means every account with balance above $42,368 at any time in the year would be considered in population
Sample Size                              = 50% of the population on the basis of risk
Planning Materiality would be the same, until the audit progresses further and additional conditions are recognized. Presently we are on the lower end of the range, due to high possibility of material misstatements. The users of the audit report are the shareholders of the company, whose holding would be transferred to Valeant. Therefore the objective is to ensure that any misstatement which reduces the value of their holding is identified properly.

Section D: Preliminary Analytical Procedures

A common size and horizontal analysis against the previous two years has been made, and it presents that the company had been performing satisfactorily till last year. It was only in 2014 when the company took borrowings and went into losses. Ratios like gross profit ratio, which is 70.20% in this year, and debt to assets ratio which is about 0.5, have been computed. These ratios suggest that while the factory operations of the company are still successful, there are other operations which are restricting its path to continue into unforeseen.

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What could go wrong?

• Sales can be overstated in the coming years to show the worth of company to be taken as a subsidiary.
• There can be overstatement of assets to ensure that the comparison between it and balance sheet's borrowing level which has been shown as long term debt can be retained.
• The company may not be able to provide the profits expected by the Valeant Inc for merger. This may lead in the holding company reducing the operations of Salex Pharmaceuticals in future.
• The company can also loss the present patent claim it has filed, which can result in further endangering the prospects of going concern of the organization through putting on more cash charge.

Institutional Arrangement On Biodiversity Conservation

This is a solution of Institutional Arrangement On Biodiversity Conservation that describes about Developing business

INTRODUCTION

This chapter outlines the theories that guide this study; and reviews related literature on biodiversity conservation, tourism and its socio-economic and environmental impact.The four theories are explained thus:

The Tourism Led Growth (TLG) hypothesis

TLG explains that international tourism generates foreign exchange, increases investment in the local areas, analyses economies of scale, increases income (Song, Dwyer and ZhengCao 2012). The hypothesis emphasizes that tourism can lead to long term economic business growth (Brida et al. 2009). With the view of tourism generated economic growth, economic benefit from the tourism initiative implemented in Benin is measured to determine its profitability and likelihood of growth.

The Structure-Conduct-Performance (SCP) Paradigm

The SCP paradigm presents an important theory for examining the market perspective of the supply from tourism. SCP paradigm proposes that the nature of the market system in which a firm operates determines the conduct of the firm and its overall performance such as its growth and profitability (Song, Dwyer and ZhengCao 2012). Therefore the content of an ecotourism package, the structure and strategies applied in execution of its activities, will influence the overall outcome of the tourism initiative. In the context of this study inclusive ecotourism practise with adequate understanding and involvement of stakeholders roles will give rise to a result oriented ecotourism activity unlike a decentralized practise where stakeholders are not fully involved.

Heterogeneity

Ecological heterogeneity is based on theoretical framework aggregated from the work of diverse biodiversity conservation managers and scientists; and the cross-cutting theme is “ecological heterogeneity in time and space” (Illuis 2003:504). The theory explains that heterogeneity underlies biodiversity and adaptive management (Illuis 2003)

Ecological Heterogeneity in the context of this study is the outputs of ecotourism activities which is either positive or negative and are produced with time. The result obtained will enable a more adaptive management of ecotourism activity to achieve its aim of conserving biodiversity and improving livelihood, without harming the environment further.

Interactional Theory

The interactional theory according to Wilkinson (1991) sees social interaction as a way by which communities are created, recreated and developed; which aids the fulfilment of emotional and material needs of the community. The interactional theory emphasizes that those relations in community influence the outcome of tourism-led development (Matarrita-Cascante 2010).

This study is based on these theories outlined; the interactional theory highlights the importance of community involvement, the SCP paradigm portrays the importance of outlining the roles of stakeholders as part of the structure of eco-tourism package, the TLG hypothesis illustrates the significance of evaluating economic benefit from tourism; and the Ecological Heterogeneity outlines the output from ecotourism practise which may be adverse in terms of GHGs emission, and aids adaptive management.

OVERVIEW OF BIODIVERSITY ISSUES AND CONSERVATION

Initially, interference in species habitat was caused by the need for food, living space and fuel; recent development in global economy, economic activity and demands from consumers drive the threat to biodiversity globally (Lenzen et al. 2012). According to Dikgang and Muchapondwa (2012), biodiversity provide different services such as provisioning services, regulation services, support services and cultural services and these services improve the economic processes; but unfortunately increasing human population, increasing cultivation and absence of awareness has significantly affected biodiversity (Kingsford et al. 2009). Conservation has been seen by some farmers as a luxury and as an issue of affordability, using different sayings to deter conservation such as "conservation begins after breakfast"; "it is hard to be green when you are in the red" (Conradie et al.2013:334). Kinver (2013) explains that ecologist have to improve their efforts in convincing people on the need for conservation, by identifying why it is important that the environment is adequately managed.

One of the practises that have led to increased loss of species is agriculture; however, none is to blame as increasing populations have led to increasing food demands and therefore the need for agriculture (Duncan 2013). Through agriculture (farming) species all over the world have been destroyed, even measures encouraged by nature reserves are limited and do not seem enough to reduce the cause of farming on biodiversity (Economist 2008).  According to Tisdell (2011), the main driver of agriculture is market failure: increase in markets and expansion of trade areas, which, in turn, hinders conservation approaches through creation of land space. Duncan (2013) argues that even though short term relationship with species look bright, the long term relationship with species currently does not look promising on sustainability. She further explained that for increased conservation of biodiversity as well adequate provision of food for increasing population, expanding agriculture is not a good practise and that intensification in a particular area is more favourable.

The second significant practise is deforestation due to need for timber; loggers have played a significant role in this area (Revkin 2012). However, a switch from cutting of trees to planting of forest trees will go a long way in conservation of species; although this method has been adopted in Africa, Asia and South America, deforestation is still practised in some parts of these continents (Black 2011). An example is in south-western Benin, a country in Africa where the economy is dependent on agriculture, livestock, trade and agro food processing; but where poor conservation practises have increased exploitation of natural resources(BECG 2010).According to Tanaka et al. (2013), this increased exploitation of biodiversity is due to the needs of the people; a core example is the increase in the need for rice in West Africa which inspired expansion of an area in Zou department (Zogbodomey, Benin) for lowland rice cultivation. Therefore, for policy decision to reduce impact on biodiversity, a global perspective should be adopted, which involves all stakeholders, both the local producers and the consumers of the products produced; forming joint decisions channelled towards adequate conservation approaches.

THE STAKEHOLDERS IN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND THEIR ROLES

For adequate conservation process a management plan is essential and this should involve all stakeholders, the measures to be taken should be agreed among the stakeholders and, importantly, the approach should suit the ecological requirement of the site(Young et al. 2013). Conradie et al. (2013), states that stakeholder identification is essential in meeting conservation targets as they contribute mostly, and are in better positions to execute plans for conservation of biodiversity. Young et al. (2013) suggested that stakeholders should be formed at a local and regional level; they divided stakeholders into three: Government and Government departmental representatives; users of biodiversity; and the technical and scientific advisers.

Government and Government departmental representatives

Governments play an important role by designing institutions for biodiversity conservation (Nilsson and Persson 2012). Reischl (2012) identified that governments are represented by their institutions on conservation and these institutions should interact, as well as be aimed to address biodiversity conservation issues. More so the support of governments and their representatives are needed for implementation of conservation actions formulated by scientist and practitioners (Arlettaz et al. 2010).

In the case of Benin Republic, CEBEDES (2007) highlighted that there are legal voids in Benin’s rules and regulations which needs to be addressed such as the traditional property rights, also that Benin’s legislative frameworks needs to be revised, updated and enforced; and development of capacity to support institutions are required.

The technical and scientific advisers

Scientific advisers contribute to conservation through their literatures; as they inform practitioners on biodiversity issues and proffer solutions to the problem (Arlettaz 2010). According to Laurance et al. (2012), strong science focused on real world conservation should guide research in biodiversity conservation.

Users of Biodiversity

Policies and programs on conservation have been re-articulated and have tried to focus on accommodating local needs and aspirations; leading ecosystem serving production that has an economic value and provide farmers with incentives and new handcraft, causing them to forgo the practise of over-using the environment (Dressler et al. 2013). But even with the increasing awareness and programs on conservation Rantala et al. (2013) explained that policy implementers and conservationist are yet to fully understand the needs of the people as well as secure the wellbeing of the people whose livelihood depended on the resources they no longer have access to.

The perception of community members and their understanding of biodiversity conservation are essential for the successful business management of biodiversity, as their knowledge will influence their interaction with the environment; and it is important that the local communities are a part of conservation plans made for their area (Vodouhe et al. 2010). The indigenous people have more knowledge of their environment and species that dwell in them, they are better positioned to know what can increase the survival of these species (CEBEDES 2010). Also, results from the fifth World Park Congress (WPC), gathered by the IUCN World commission on protected area (UNEP-WCMC 2012), showed that when assessing the role of local communities and indigenous people in decision making, a consideration of customary and territorial rights is very important. Conservation made easily accessible by the public and are more inclusive, produces better results and, the citizens in communities close to biodiversity to be conserved play vital roles in the conservation process (Kothari et al. 2013). Therefore analysing the roles of various stakeholders in a conservation plan is essential to eliminate conflict of interest and ensure adequate implementation of conservation practises posed.

Stakeholders in the pilot project on Koussoukpa Zogbodomey in Benin

The stakeholders identified in biodiversity conservation following the project in Benin were resource users, administrators, municipalities and Parliament members. The stakeholders’ roles during the research project were to analyse both the benefit of conservation currently implemented, alternative options and work towards implementation. They also assessed the security provided by legal frameworks implemented and the extent to which the institutional arrangements are sustained (CEBEDES 2007). The strategy used in stakeholder identification in the pilot project was to discover institutional and individual partners who were interested in biodiversity conservation in Benin, Costa Rica and Bhutan, and who are willing to share experiences on issues pertinent to conservation debates at local level and among the public (CEBEDES 2007). The stakeholders outlined in table 2.1 were the main actors who participated in the pilot project in Koussoukpa  Zogbodomey Benin (section 2.8). In each organization identified in table 2.1, large amount of players were involved, a comprehensive administrative organization of these players was found to have been crucial to the success of the pilot project (Alladatin 2010; CEBEDES 2010; Floquent, Alladatin and Abdelaziz2010).

Table 2.1        Stakeholders in Koussoukpa Zogbodomey Benin pilot project (Alladatin 2010; BECG 2010; CEBEDES 2010; Floquent, Alladatin and Abdelaziz2010)

Initiating Entity	Basic Information	Role
CEBEDES (Benin Centre for Environmental; and Development, Economic and Social )	Sector: Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Centre of Operations: Benin Ownership: National-level Governments	CEBEDE Xudodo acted as the facilitator in the project process.
Supporting Entity	Basic Information	Role
AVIGREF (Village association for wildlife reserve management)	Sector: NGO Centre of Operations: Benin Ownership: State-level governments	Organization of the Riparian population for the purpose of reserve management. Sensitize population on the necessity to preserve habitat, flora and fauna. Ensure that exploitation of natural resources promotes community development. Assist CENAGREF in performing task of control activities.
CENAGREF (National Centre for wildlife management)	Sector: NGO Centre of Operations: Benin Ownership: State-level Governments	Manage the Pendjari National Park with the objective of preserving Benin’s ecosystem and biodiversity. Controls the park and monitors species, park settlement, tourism management and potentials, and anti-poaching.
ECOBENIN (Benin Eco-Tourism Concern)	Sector: NGO Centre of Operations: Benin Ownership: National-level Governments	Act as major player in the promotion of ecotourism in Tanougou and Kouusoukpa Zogbodomey Benin.
DPNP (Directing Board National Park Pendjari)	Sector: NGO Centre of Operations: Benin	Prevention of path opening with heavy machines.

INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT ON BIODIVERISITY CONSERVATION

Institution is defined by North (1990:3) as “the rules of the game in a society or, the humanly devised constraint that shape human interaction”. According to MacDonald (2010)in the World Conservation Congress (WCC) legible institutions and struggles in conservation organizational order are addressed. Institutions limit or encourage the interaction between ecosystem and humans; however there are rules set up to moderate the interaction between social systems and ecological systems (Gatzweiler 2005). Due to the large scale of interaction between ecosystem goods and services, institutional diversity is also essential and more so the diverse governance structures should be fit into the different scales of interaction (Padmanabhan and Jungcurt 2012).

Mongbo (2008) explained that institutional arrangement play significant role in the transformation of Benin socially, focusing on its tourism and national park development; and according to Yami et al. (2009) for new developmental projects towards conservation of natural resources, institutional arrangement in place needs to be evaluated, identifying its weaknesses and strengths; if not sustainable practise may be undermined and finances lost. Barrett, Lee and McPeaks (2005) report that how well a community or nation monitor and enforce its rules and institution on conservation is more important than which rule they adopt; more so rules designed to be flexible are important for the advancement of development and advancement of goals; and the most common problem with communities and developing areas is that the capacity to enforce these rules are often time lacking.

There are different institutions that govern diverse conservation practise and some of this practise are more significant than the others, the most known are the Payment for Ecosystem/Environmental Service (PES), Protected Area method (PA) and the Biodiversity Development Agreements (BDA) which are further discussed in this report; more include the ‘fee-simple purchase’, ‘tradable development rights’, ‘preferential tax treatment for conservation’, ‘land restriction with regulation’. On a broader scale these least common types of conservation fall under the most significant ones listed earlier (Boyd and Simpsons 1999).  Stakeholders also play significant role in ensuring the execution of institutions established for conservation purposes; the institutions will have no effect if not enforced (Floquent, Alladatin and Abdelaziz 2010). Read More : Unit 6 Contemporary Issues In Travel And Tourism

2.5 CONSERVATION PRACTISES

2.5.1 Payment for ecosystem/environmental service (PES)

PES strategy spans over the interest of landowners and the need for biodiversity conservation, creating a more direct conservation model; PES is therefore a conservation system where private landowners are provided with financial incentives to execute conservation practises that protect the ecosystem as well as provide some of its services (Garbach 2012). PES has also been referred to as a direct payment method where conservationist gives incentives to individuals to preserve the ecosystem rather than destroy it (Ferraro and Kiss 2002). Ferraro and Kiss (2002) further explained PES advantage as it being a direct payment approach which is cost efficient, using the principle that the most economical way to acquire something is to pay for it rather than pay for something that looks like it. PES has some identifiable disadvantages,Clement et al. (2010) explained that PES program require funding and may be unsustainable over time. PES may cause conflict due to inequality triggered by payment to some members of the society; and local people may use the conflict as an avenue to fight against conservation (Dressler et al. 2013).

PES have been practised in different countries but significant to this study is the practise in Costa Rica; in Costa Rica the practise of PES caused other likely conservation schemes to be ignored, putting minor importance on agricultural context and concentrated on financial incentives (Vignola et al. 2012).  PES although somewhat effective in conservation of biodiversity in Costa Rica is understood when related to Costa Rica’s national budget; after the first decade in 2006 PES caused a 0.43% increase in the national budget and an increase of 13.3million USD in Costa Rica’s annual budget (Daniel et al. 2012).

2.5.2 Biodiversity Development Agreements (BDA)

BDA connects the interest of biodiversity owners and users through the arrangement of biodiversity prospecting efforts, which according to Kursar et al. (2006:1), biodiversity prospecting is “the investigation of biodiversity as a source of useful medicines or genes and in practice might provide the expected benefits”; but biodiversity prospecting is being used below its potential in biodiversity rich region. BDA’s strategy is to sell successfully conserved products and thereby pay royalties to the host government for each sale; BDA advantages include technology transfer, training, payment and job opportunity (Kursar et al. 2006).

2.5.3 Protected Area (PA)

According to Dudley (2008:8) “A protected area is a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values”. Being the cornerstone of biodiversity conservation approach in the world (Gregoire et al. 2007) the aim of protected areas is to limit natural resource exploitation (UNEP 2013). More than 12% of the earth’s land surface is among the world designated protected areas but yet biodiversity loss continues at a higher rate (UNEP-WCMC 2008). Steady increase in ecological isolation have caused forest habitat loss around protected areas explained Gregoire et al. (2005); the degradation of the surrounding area of a reserve can led to changes in soil, in vegetation composition, in its microclimate and perhaps species extinction(Gregoire et al. 2005, Dikgang and Muchaponda 2012).

Lack of incentive to communities where protected area is practised have caused conflict and also caused exploration of non-adequately managed protected areas (Vodouhe et al. 2010, Dikgang and Muchaponda 2012). Another limitation with protected area is the existence of poor payment to staffs, poor infrastructures for workers, in some cases where human settlement are involved, finance is required to adequately settle the people who are being displaced from their habitats (Clement et al. 2010).  Leverington et al. (2010) illustrated that despite insufficient funding and unsatisfactory inventory management, there are positive results showing positive impact of protected area in biodiversity conservation. The Rapid Assessment and Prioritization of Protected Area Management (RAPPAM) have been developed by WWF to monitor effectiveness of protected area as a biodiversity conservation measure (Ervin 2003).

IUCN protected area management categories include: strict nature reserve (ecotourism sites), national parks, natural monument, habitat/species, protected landscape/seascape, and managed resource protected area (Dudley 2008).An example of protected area is the Pendjari biosphere reserve (ecotourism site) which has an area of 480,000 ha, one of the largest protected area groups in West Africa spanning across Niger, Burkina Faso and Benin (Alladatin 2010).

2.6 ECOTOURISM AND PARK DEVELOPMENT

Tourism according to World Tourism Organization (WTO) is ‘activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business strategy and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated form within the place visited. Ecotourism is therefore tourism that is nature-based and managed for sustainability (Gurung and Seeland 2008). The practise of ecotourism is identified in Conradie et al. (2013) as a marker for conservation mindedness. Ecotourism is currently seen as one of the most significant areas in the world economy; contributing extensively to income and welfare of countries (Motavalli 1995, Gossling et al. 2005). The success of ecotourism in countries such as Costa Rica is impressive and has increased the attraction of other countries to adopt ecotourism as a form of economic growth as well as environmental preservation (Higgins 2006).

Despite the benefits of ecotourism, ecotourism has some impacts on the environment explained Gossling (2002) and they include:  land use and land cover, where land is used for road development, erection of building for accommodation and catering services; energy use in terms of transport related activities which led to increased emission of greenhouse gases and global warming. Also biotic exchange and wild life species extinction, through international commerce and live organism trade in; exchange and dispersion of diseases, through transport of infected organism, disease from tourist from new locations; changes in human-environmental relations; and water use.

Furthermore, crucial to tourism sustainability is, fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emission, which from a global perspective is, the most urgent environmental issue in relation to tourism; transportation, assessing journey level from 60% to 95% in-addition to transport locally; accommodation and tour activities (UNEP 2011). Tourist industries and organization in tourism business fear that energy prices may cause decline in countries’ economic welfare through eco-tax payment (Gossling et al. 2005).

2.7 STUDY AREA

2.7.1 Benin

Benin is a country in West Africa, bordering Nigeria, Burkina Faso and Togo. Benin is small in size with an area of 112,700 sq. km and a population of 9,877,292; Benin has been described as one of the poor countries in Africa with most of the population dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, although cotton production and regional trade is practised (CIA 2013). In West Africa, Benin is popularly known for its most heterogeneous flora and fauna even though resource identification is yet to be completed (Mongbo 2008). The economy of the country is still underdeveloped and according to 2012 estimate, has a GDP of $15.84 billion (CIA 2013).

2.7.2 Benin economy

The decline previously recorded in Benin’s economy was gradually reversed since 2010; in 2012, a 3.8% of growth was estimated and is projected to increase in 2013 and 2014; one of the areas of focus for achieving this growth is the elimination of hindrance in its agricultural practises and natural resource mining (African Economic business Outlook 2013). As found in Song et al. (2012) and Conradie et al. (2013) this action may deter biodiversity conservation approaches which aim at preserving the environment via reduction of agricultural practises, however, either practise (agriculture or biodiversity conservation) may become a priority depending on its potential to improve Benin’s economy.

Records also hold that rapid deforestation is experienced in Benin, with increasing population; and consequently Benin has lost about 70,000 hectares of forest per year between 1990 and 2001; every year at least 1,600km² of tree formation are converted to farmland (BECG 2010). More so about 280 plant species which represents 10% of the flora are threatened; however global strategy explains that a minimum of 60% of the threatened species require conservation in a protected area (Houehanou et al. 2012).

2.7.3 Benin’s biodiversity conservation practise

Inconsistency in the implementation of conservation plans is prevalent in Benin and absence of corrective actions are still unknown (CEBEDES 2007). Benin’ s rich natural resource protection have not produced benefits like conservation in Costa Rica, and institutions managing its natural resources are weak and most times bypassed by the habitants, causing increase in biodiversity depletion. Therefore, there is need for institutional products development and its enforcement; involvement of the habitants of these areas in the institutional formation to eliminate the lack of compliance. Also the institutions should favour the populace if not they are not likely to be sustained. Conservation practise likely to favour Benin is Protected area services specifically tourism (CEBEDES 2010).

Protected area management is currently practised in Benin, covering about 20% of the national area, example include the Pendjari national park, transnational W park, Gazetted forest, community protected wetlands, sacred forest (Houehanou et al. 2012).  Houehanou et al. (2012) observed that although this reserve is well managed and has increased tourist attraction in Benin, focus is more on conservation of the wide range of animals in the reserve than the vegetation present because the former provide more financial resources than the latter.

2.7.4 Zogbodomey: Lokoli-Hlanzoun Swamp/Koussoukpa Swamp in Benin

Zogbodomey in the South-Western Benin is where the heart of the Lokoli-Hlan River lies (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1:       The Hlan river (Floquent 2010)

Figure 2.2        Map of Zuo Department (Zogbodomey community) (Tanaka et al. 2013)

The Hlan River is a swamp forest with an area of about 500acres interspersed with wild Macabo Taro, as shown in Figures 2.1 and 2.2 above. The site spans across Dome, Zogbodomey and the Toffo community, but most of the river is developed in the Koussoukpa one of the administrative district in Zogbodomey Benin (Alladatin 2010).

A large number of plants and animal species habit the swamp forest; some of the plant species include: Alstonia congensis, Syzygium owariense, Hallea ledermannii and Nauclea xanthoxylon and some animal species are Lutra maculicollis, cercopithecus aethiops tantalus,and Atilax paludinosus.Some of these species are under threat, while some are rare and endemic; also some are used by the population as food (Floquent, Alladatin and Abdelaziz2010).The population of the area that covers the Hlan forest is summarised in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2:                    Population in the study area   (Floquent 2010)

Villages	Total	Men	Women
Lokoli-Koussoukpa	1675	790	885
Deme	1323	623	700
Hon	1496	700	796
Kpome	5252	2573	2681
Total	9746	4686	5062

The Zogbodomey economy is based on agriculture, livestock, trade and agro food processing; 80% of the population is dependent on agriculture, maize and groundnut are the main crops cultivated, however, vegetables, cassava, cotton, cowpeas, soybean and rice are grown as well. Most of the enterprises in Zogbodomey refine the products from agriculture (BECG 2010). The people also practise livestock production on pigs, poultry, goat, rabbits and sheep. Increasing exploitation of biodiversity is due to the needs of the people and the dependence of their livelihood on agricultural practises (Tanaka et al. 2013).

2.8 PILOT PROJECT ON KOUSSOUKPA SWAMP (ZOGBODOMEY)BENIN

2.8.1 The Project Initiative and Approach

The Project was designed to address biodiversity conservation challenges by drawing experiences from Costa Rica, Bhutan and Benin, identifying opportunities, options and designs adoptable at community, municipal and National levels (CEBEDES 2007). Lessons were drawn for three types of protected areas: gazetted forests, national parks and community protected areas.One of these community protected areas is the Hlanzoun swamp forest in Koussoukpa Zogbodomey community. Significantly one of the project’s objectives was to contribute to the protection in the Hlanzoun swamp forest through ecotourism promotion using initiatives from practise in Bhutan and Costa Rica (Floquent 2010).

2.8.2 Project Activity

Different activities were carried out during the project. CEBEDES (2010) reports that an exchange trip was organized with AVIGREF for some people in Hlanzoun to visit Pendjari National Park in Benin for an experience of the practise in the biosphere reserve; this in essence is to influence the Hlanzouns’ perception on ecotourism, train and teach them on ecotourism practise. Also a visit to the Tchaourou, Toui and Kilibo (TTK) forest was organized to assess the conservation activity in the forest. An Ecotourism centre was set up in the koussoukpa Zogbodomey Benin and a forum of discussion for results obtained from project was planned. However this project was stopped at the initiation of ecotourism in the Koussoukpa Zogbodomey Community in Benin and there has not been any analysis on the economic impact of the initiative (CEBEDES 2010). See more : Managing Financial Resources Decisions Assignment

2.9 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND ITS ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO ECONOMIC IMPACT (ESIA)

2.9.1 Economic impact

According to Meffe (2008) one of the drivers of biodiversity loss and destruction is economic growth. The kuznet curve which is an inverted U was used to explain the relationship between income per capita and environmental quality: environmental degradation (biodiversity loss) increases alongside increasing income and at some point environmental degradation decreases (Kuznet 1955). In this scenario the income per capita explains the economic impact while environmental quality is biodiversity state. Although Czech (2008) suggests that in a macroeconomic situation, the kuznet curve is seen as a fallacy and is not exactly important. Also, Dietz and Adger (2002) hypothesised that the relationship between biodiversity conservation and economic growth cannot exactly be assessed within the Kuznet hypothesis framework; explaining that due to the current rate of species extinction, biodiversity loss may slow at some point of rise in income but cannot be reversed.

Agriculture is deemed the foundation of economy and the main activity which impacts on biodiversity, examples include, farming, logging, livestock rearing and mining (Czech 2008). As ecosystem is used the output in the economy also increases, as illustrated in Figure 2.3. However, biodiversity conservation with incentives also gives rise to increase in economy, as in the case of Costa Rica where most of its conservation practises led to increase in the country’s finances especially ecotourism which is now the main source of finance in Costa Rica (Floquent and Abdelaziz2010).Kursar et al. (2006) recognised that the challenge of integrating biodiversity conservation has been identifying its economic value and thereby justifying its implementation.

Figure 2.3        GDP produced over time from ecosystem input (Czech 2008)

Analysis of economic impact of biodiversity conservation plans for a country, region or community should have incentives for the habitants and on the long run enhance economic development; research have shown that ecotourism is expected to yield economic benefits such as creation of jobs, increase goods and services supply, enhance building maintenance and generate revenues for the government through tax (Kirkby et al. 2010). Therefore, tourism brings about changes usually observed in economic growth (Matarrita-Cascante 2010).

2.9.2 Social impact

Social features include attitudes, connectedness via groups and networks, relations of trust, exchanges of goods, knowledge and social norms (Moon, Marshall and Cockline 2012). According to Mkapa  in the UN GSSD expo (2013) for a successful sustainable development and green economy achievement, development must be inclusive, meaning everyone at different levels must be involved; he further explained that incentives to host community is also one of the keys. This inclusive sustainable development will led to activities such as environmental education, lecture presentations and public and media relations; and they are to be incorporated in the biodiversity conservation project plan and will in turn impact the social economy positively as well enhance social concerns (Lee and Iwasa 2012). Conservation practise that positively impacts users and owners of biodiversity motivates people participation. Moon, Marshal and Cocklin (2012:293) stated that “conservation policies that maintain or improve landholders, personal circumstances, and promotes pro-environmental norms may result in increased participation and thereby conservation outcomes”.

2.9.3 Environmental impact

Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA) is essential in identifying the specific conservation strategy useable for different threatened species (Safont et al. 2012). Also Gontier et al. (2006) explained EIA as a tool to be applied in planning biodiversity conservation practises; various activities and processes are involved in conservation implementation such as infrastructural development; these practises differ and may have diverse impact on the environment. Therefore it is possible to analyse the possible impacts of any kind of activity on biodiversity through defining biodiversity’s composition, key processes and structure; and explaining how projects programs affect biodiversity components (Slootweg and Kolhoff 2003).

Intact forest ensures reduced carbon emission into the environment and hence increased carbon credits (Kursar et al. 2006) and one of the side effects of expanding land use for agriculture is increased greenhouse gas emission (Gelfand et al. 2011).Vegas-Vilarrubia, Nogue and Rull (2012) stated that species extinction and species distribution shifts increases global warming and vice versa. Slootweg and Kolhoff (2003) further explained as shown in Figure 2.4, that in analysing a large project the following must be put into consideration: firstly the program which may be a biophysical intervention will give rise to a biophysical change which may be changes in its recipient’s characteristics (example soil, water, flora and fauna, air) secondly, each biophysical change may cause a link of second-order and higher-order biophysical changes: lastly biophysical change may cause on-site changes (influence in the area of project) and off-site changes (influence outside the area of project).

Figure 2.4        Project impacts and changes (Slootweg and Kollhoff 2003).

2.10 GLOBAL WARMING: GREEN HOUSE GAS (GHG) EMISSION

Global warming also recognised as global climate change is as a result of increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Choaqun 2011). Global warming is now evident and CO₂ is the main contributor, expected to account for 60% of the GHG emission in the next century (Dhillion and Wuehlisch 2013). CO₂ emissions are caused by burning of fossil fuel, consumption of goods and services, activities that destroy the natural vegetation (Davies and Caldeira 2010). As illustrated in figure 2.5, Africa’s forested area, contributes 21% of the global carbon stock, which is analysed to monitor the trends in climate change (FAO/UN 2011). Other gases, the non CO₂ ‘Kyoto gases’ contribute to global warming and they include chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), nitrous oxide and methane; these gases contribute one-third of CO₂’s GHG emission but they have high global warming potential, for example methane accounts for 3.7 times the global warming of CO₂(Meinshausen et al. 2009). Tourism contributes to global warming through the emissions from accommodation, transport and activities; and as at 2005 tourism contributed 5% to CO₂ global warming (Scott 2008).Through the 20^th century global warming has increased by 0.8^oC and is projected to rise by 1.4 to 5.8^oC, as shown in Figure 2.6. This has caused the increased focus on a low carbon economy,reducing pollution, carbon emission and energy consumption; and all over the world, measures and strategies to reduce the accumulation of GHG in the atmosphere are been analysed (Choaqun 2011).

Figure 2.5:       Africa’s carbon stock in forest Biomass (FAO/UN 2011)

Figure 2.6        Surface temperature change and Kyoto-gas emissions (Meinshausen et al 2009).

2.11TOURISM AND GLOBAL WARMING

Although researchers have commented that climate change impacts tourism negatively, it is important to note that ecotourism also increases climate change, through GHG emission from accommodation, catering services, transport and some other tourism activities (Perch-Nielson, Sesartic and Stucki 2010). Also UNEP (2013) identified that one of the main challenges of tourism is the growth in its energy consumption and GHG emissions. Filimonau et al. (2013) confirms that the footprint of tourism through GHG emission is obvious, as shown in table 2.3, therefore in the quest to reduce climate change and ensure sustainable development through green practises like ecotourism, plans to reduce emissions of GHG impact of tourism are also essential.

Table 2.3:                    Tourism CO₂ contribution (Scott 2008).

Tourism contributes about 4.4% of the global CO₂ emission and a growth rate of 3.2% per year up to 2035 has been projected for emissions. Climate change is fast rising and to avoid its danger there is need to reduce emissions by 3% to 6% per year starting from 2015 (Peeter and Dubois 2010).

Filimonau et al. (2013) further mentioned that measurement of GHG emitted per activity is therefore inevitable. GHG emissions measurement against the economic impact of ecotourism helps determine if ecotourism is actually alleviating environmental issue or increasing it; this measurement can be through eco-efficiency calculation which measures the amount of GHG per unit of revenue generated (Gossling et al. 2005). GHG intensity calculation is another method of measurement, which, analyses GHG emission against value added by an economic activity, which in this case is ecotourism (Perch-Nielson, Sesartic and Stucki 2010). Munday, Turner and Jones (2013) explained that measurement of GHG is also viable as recently, data used in tracking tourism consumption have been improved such as the Tourism Satellite Account (TSA), World Tourism Organization (WTO) and World Bank.

Although Becken (2008) stated that climate change challenge caused by tourism is an avenue for tourism to stir towards being more strategic, systematic and sustainable. Weaver (2011) proposed that the view on climate change issues from tourism will hamper the productivity of a sustainable tourism; explaining that tourism and its climate change challenges are not fully understood, and possibly no solution may be discovered. However, more research in sustainable development will always be followed by research on climate change for achievement of more sustainable development (Scott 2011).

As a form of solution Butler (1980), Middleton and Hawkins (1998), SAIC (2006) and Serrano-Bernardo (2012) suggested different models as an effective means to monitor environmental issues. However their suggestion varied in different ways, while SAIC (2006) focused on discussing the Life Cycle Assessment, Butler (1980), Middleton and Hawkins (1998) focused on assessing tourism destination cycle and tourism carrying capacity, further Serrano-Bernado (2012) stated the possibility of adopting the SAIC (2006) cycle for all tourism activity. Figure 2.7 outlines the Life Cycle Assessment framework.

Figure 2.7:       Life Cycle Assessment Framework (SAIC 2006)

More so Choaqun (2011) suggested that for a tourism that support sustainable development, renewable energy technology can be used; renewable energy source are solar, biomass, geothermal, hydro and wind energy, which do not harm the environment. This in turn will lead to development of new ideas for tourism enhancement.

2.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY

Despite all the cited literature herein, there still appear gaps in knowledgeregarding:(1) the roles of stakeholders in biodiversity conservation in Benin Republic. (2) The likely economic benefit of the ecotourism initiative implemented in Koussoukpa Zogbodomey Benin. (3) The adverse environmental impact of ecotourism in Benin Republic, in terms of GHG emitted into the environment. The next chapter outlines methods employed to address this mentioned gaps in knowledge.

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Numerous Centuries Before Christopher Columbus Assignment

This is a solution of Numerous Centuries Before Christopher Columbus Assignment in which we discuss Developing business

Introduction

Numerous centuries before Christopher Columbus' voyage ships arrived in the Bahamas, another community of individuals discovered America: the nomadic people of current Native Americans who trekked from Asia to what is presently Alaska more than 12,000 years prior. Actually, when European travelers landed in the fifteenth century A.D, It is assessed that more than 50 million individuals were already living in America. As time passed, the migrants and their offspring travelled south and east, adapting as they moved on.

Native Americans who live within the present-day United States comprise of various, unique tribes, ethnic groups, and sovereign countries. The terms Natives are utilized to allude to them vary in tribe and generationally, with numerous aged Natives identifying themselves as simply Indians, while the young generation Natives frequently identify as Indigenous. Most of the native Indian tribes lived separately, and each tribe had its own way of life (Adams 1875-1928). When the explorers arrived in America, they found that the natives relied primarily on the nomadic way of life. Therefore, explorers introduced new breeds of animals that the native Indians did not know, this included horses, pigs and a variety of insects and birds, which were used both as food, and as transport animals for that assisted them in expanding their territories.

There many famous Native American who helped to shape the current America, for instance, one of the most renowned overland explorations that were carried out on the North American mainland could not be conceivable without the assistance of a famous Native American woman called Sacagawea. Alexie (133-136) once highlighted that amid the incredible endeavor of Lewis and Clark, she gave instrumental assistance on their excursion over the Rocky Mountains on their route to the Pacific and back. Today, she is recognized as a standout amongst the most renowned woman voyager of all ages.

Sacagawea was conceived around 1788, as the girl of the head of the Shoshone tribe that was positioned in the territory of the today's city Salmon in Lemhi County, Idaho. At 12 years old, she was hijacked by the raiding party of the wandering Hidatsa Indians, and was transported to their town at present day North Dakota (Adams 1875-1928). There she was sold to be the wife of the French-Canadian trapper Toussaint .While being pregnant with her first youngster she and her spouse become engaged by the visiting party of the pilgrims Lewis and Clark. They headed to Sacagawea town on their excursion to the unexplored northwestern territories of the North American mainland. Their primary area of exploration was the riverbed of waterway Missouri, in the faith of discovering the watercourse from the eastern US to the Pacific. Read more : Unit 8 Legislation And Ethics In Travel And Tourism Sector

Sacagawea began this hard voyage in the spring of 1805, carrying her young kid. The Choice to bring a woman and a kid on undertaking was made by Lewis and Clark, because they realized that different Indian tribes that they will encounter along the way would not see them as risk with her in their midst. After few weeks of voyaging, their resolution paid off when they met the tribe of Shoshone Indians. Alexie (133-136) once argued that most amusing, head of that tribe was no other than Sacagawea's truant sibling who survived the assault of the Hidatsa Indians around five years back. After purchasing horses and supplies, the group began their hard adventure over the Rocky Mountains. At that time Sacagawea's knowledge of wild became very instrumental - she taught the team how to find consumable nourishment, where to find herbal medications, pointed the easiest courses through the harsh landscape and as the only woman in the group she was tasked with the occupation of cooking, repairing and washing garments.

After returning to Hidatsa Indians, Sacagawea, her children and her spouse Charbonneau relocated to St. Louis, where they got assistance from Captain William. Later on, Sacagawea and his husband divorced and she remarried again. Sacagawea is considered one influential Native Americans in history.

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